The incarnations of Lord Vishnu

According to Hindu theology, three Gods rule the world. Brahma: the creator; Vishnu: the preserver and Shiva: the destroyer. Lord Vishnu does his job of preserving the world by incarnating himself in different forms at times of crisis.

In his first incarnation he appeared as a fish, Matsya, to convinced a human being, Manu, to collect all kinds of seeds and pairs of all birds and animals and to get with them on a boat. After this a flood drowned the earth and destroyed everything and the good hearted Manu started a new human race.

In his second incarnation as Kurma, the turtle, he helped the Gods and non-Gods to churn the ocean of milk, which held in its divine treasures.

In his third incarnation as Varaha, the boar, he used his tusks to raise the earth, which had sunk in the sea.

In his fourth incarnation he appeared as Narsimha, which was neither a man nor animal but a strange being, half-man and half-animal. He appeared in this form to kill a demon who was blessed that no animal or human could kill him.

In his fifth incarnation he was a dwarf, Vamana. As a little person he asked the demon, who ruled the three worlds, to give him land three times his foot. The demon agreed and Vamana turned into a huge giant and his feet covered the three worlds.

In his sixth incarnation he was a priest, Parsuram. Parsuram as a non-violent priest took an axe to kill warriors who threatened the human race.

In his seventh incarnation, he was Rama, the main character in the Ramayana, who killed the demon Ravan.

In his eighth incarnation he was Krishna who helped the right-minded Pandavas to defeat the villain Kauravas. Krishna is also the philosopher of the Bhagwad Gita, one of the holiest Hindu texts.

About the ninth incarnation. Two different personalities are identified as the ninth incarnation of Vishnu. One is Balaram, the elder brother of Krishna, who like Krishna helped the right-minded persons to defeat the villians.

The other personality identified as his ninth incarnation is Buddha, the establisher of Buddhism. Here too, there are two different beliefs for the purpose of this incarnation. According to one belief Vishnu incarnated as Buddha to preach non-violence and against animal sacrificing in religious ceremony. According to other belief, Vishnu incarnated as Buddha to start a new religion with a specific intention to convince some demons to give up worshipping Lord Shiva. For, Lord Shiva protected his worshippers and these demons used this protection to do whatever they wanted. Buddha convinced them with his new religion and they stopped worshipping Lord Shiva, which in turn allowed Shiva to punish them.

The tenth incarnation of Vishnu, Kalki, is suppose to arrive when the world will be at a brink of complete chaos. He will rise from the sea on a white horse and destroy all evil.

Great monuments and Forts

Of all the Indian monuments, forts and palaces are most fascinating. Most of the Indian forts were built as a defense mechanism to keep the enemy away. The state of Rajasthan is home to numerous forts and palaces. Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh are also not far behind. In fact, whole India is dotted with forts of varied sizes. The magnificent forts and palaces of Rajasthan were built during the medieval period. The notable feature about each of the forts and palaces is the exquisite carving work that has survived till date and still receives appreciation from people worldwide.



These magnificent forts can not be described in words as they will look too small in front of splendor of forts that beautify India. Some prominent forts of Rajasthan are Amber fort, Chittorgarh fort, Jaisalmer fort, Lohagarh fort, Bikaner fort and Jaigarh fort. Delhi, the capital of India also boasts of some great forts. Some of the notable forts of Delhi are the Red fort, Purana Quila and the Tughlaqabad fort. These grand forts clearly depict the glory of Indian majestic past. There are many other forts of importance in India. Some of the most notable are the Red fort, Agra, the Gwalior fort and the Junagarh fort.

Agra Fort
The majestic Agra fort was built by the great Mughal emperor, Akbar in 1565-75. The Agra fort contains numerous impressive structures like the Jahangir Mahal, Khas Mahal, Diwan-i-Khass, Diwan-i-Am, Machchhi Bhawan and Moti Masjid. The Agra fort is enclosed by a double battlemented massive wall of red sandstone.


Amber Fort
The Amber fort is set in a picturesque location a little away from Jaipur, the capital of Rajasthan state. The Amber Fort presents a fascinating blend of Hindu and Muslim architecture. Raja Man Singh built the Amber fort in the sixteenth century (the construction of the Amber Fort was started in 1592).




Chittorgarh Fort
In the pages of history Chittorgarh holds a proud place and regarded as the symbol of Rajput chivalry, resistance and bravery. The Chittorgarh fort is situated 175 km to the east of Udaipur and is named after Chitrangad Maurya. Chittorgarh covers an area seven mile covering 700 acres of land with its fortifications, palaces, temples and towers.

Delhi Fort
The Red fort (Lal Qila) at Delhi was built by Shah Jahan on the banks of river Yamuna. The Red fort at Delhi is one of the massive forts in India and is a witness to the heyday of the Mughal Empire. Shah Jahan built the Red fort as the citadel of Shahjahanabad, his new capital at Delhi.

Gwalior Fort
The Gwalior fort spreads out over an area of 3 square km, surrounded by concrete walls of sandstone. The Gwalior fort encloses three temples, six palaces and numerous water tanks. At a point of time Gwalior fort was regarded as North and Central India's most invincible fortress.

Jaigarh Fort
The magnificent Jaigarh fort is located near Jaipur. Jaigarh fort or the fort of victory was constructed by Sawai Jai Singh of Jaipur in 1726. The Fort stands in the middle of thorn and scrub hills, which impart it a stout look. The Jaigarh fort gives an amazing view of the city below.

Jaisalmer Fort
One of the oldest and massive forts of Rajasthan, Jaisalmer fort is located in the remote Thar Desert. In the medieval times, the location of Jaisalmer on the trade route made it a prosperous town. Jaisalmer came to be celebrated for the chivalry and bravery of its rulers and also for the aesthetic sense represented by its palaces and Havelis.

Junagarh Fort
Located in Bikaner, the Junagarh fort is one of the most impressive fort complexes in India. Junagarh fort was built by Raja Rai Singh in 1588 AD. Junagarh fort is one of those few forts that are not built on a hilltop. The fort complex consists of palaces, courtyards, pavilions and balconies.

Lohagarh Fort
Lohagarh fort or the Iron fort was built in the early 18th century by the Jat ruler, Maharaja Suraj Mal. The Lohagarh fort is a living testimony to the chivalry and bravery of the Jat rulers of Bharatpur. Due to its impregnable defenses the fort came to be known by name of Lohagarh.

Purana Quila
The Purana Quila or the old fort was constructed by Humayun and Sher Shah. The old fort complex covers an area of about a mile. The walls of Purana Quila have three gates (the Humayun Darwaza, Talaqi Darwaza and Bara Darwaza) and are surrounded by a moat, which was fed by river Yamuna.

Tughlaqabad Fort
In a state of total ruin, the Tughlaqabad fort was once a symbolic of the might of the Tughlaq dynasty. The Tughlaqabad fort was built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. The fort is spread over an extensive area and a piece of architectural marvel.

Golconda Fort
A majestic fortress on the outskirts of Hyderabad, Golconda Fort is one of the grandest forts of India. Built around 12th and 16th Century by various Qutub Shahi rulers, this fort has a rich history that is almost 400 years old. It is definitely a place worth visiting in case you are traveling to the south of India.

Srirangapatna Fort
One of the prime attractions in Mysore, Karnataka is the famous Srirangapatnam fort. Built in the year 1537 by a feudal lord, this magnificent fort is considered to be the second toughest fort of India. The Srirangapatna Fort has four main entrances known by the names of Delhi, Bangalore, Mysore and Water and Elephant gates.

Indian Architecture

Indian Architecture

One of the most enduring achievements of Indian civilization is undoubtedly its architecture. Indian architecture, which has evolved through centuries, is the result of socio-economic and geographical conditions. Different types of Indian architectural styles include a mass of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history considered unique to India. As a result of vast diversities, a vast range of architectural specimens have evolved, retaining a certain amount of continuity across history.

Indian architecture is that vast tapestry of production of the Indian Subcontinent that encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history considered unique to the sub-continent, sometimes destroying, but most of the time absorbing.

Indian architecture, belonging to different periods of history, bears the stamp of respective periods. Though the cities of Indus Valley provide substantial evidence of extensive town planning, the beginnings of Indian architecture can be traced back to the advent of Buddhism in India. It was in this period that a large number of magnificent buildings came up. Some of the highlights of Buddhist art and architecture are the Great Stupa at Sanchi and the rock-cut caves at Ajanta.

With the establishment of Hindu kingdoms in South India, the south Indian school of architecture began to flourish. The most notable achievements of the Pallava rulers were the rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram and the temples of Kanchipuram. The Chola, Hoyasala and Vijayanagar rulers also did remarkable job in the field of architecture. The temples at Thanjavur, Belur and Halebid bear testimony to the architectural excellence of the South Indian rulers.

In north India, there developed a new a different style of architecture. This was called as the Nagara style architecture. In central India, the Chandela rulers built a magnificent temple complex at Khajuraho. With the coming of the Muslim rulers, there developed a new architectural style in India- the Indo-Islamic architecture. The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu. The architecture of the medieval period can be divided into two main categories. They are the Delhi or the Imperial Style and the Mughal Architecture.

It was followed by a new style of architecture that developed as a result of colonization of India. This style of architecture came to be called as Indo-Saracenic. The Indo-Saracenic architecture combined the features of Hindu, Islamic and western elements. The colonial architecture exhibited itself through institutional, civic and utilitarian buildings such as post offices, railway stations, rest houses and government buildings.




Indian art and architecture, works of art and architecture produced on the Indian subcontinent, which is now divided among India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. In the Western world, notable collections of Indian art can be seen in the British Museum, in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Introduction

Although a great deal of Indian secular art was produced, it was essentially made of perishable material and has not survived. What has survived in the medium of stone is religious art. In both Buddhist and Hindu art, symbolism in gesture, posture, and attribute contains many levels of meaning. In images of the Buddha, different hand positions (mudras) signify religious states, such as the Enlightenment (Nirvana), Meditation, and Preaching. In Hindu sculpture, deities (see Vishnu, Krishna, and Shiva) are frequently represented with many hands to indicate their power to perform multiple deeds at the same time, and the hands each carry their characteristic attributes. With the exception of Mughal art and architecture, which demands separate treatment, the major trends in Indian art–Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain–are discussed within this article.

Indus Valley Civilization

The earliest Indian art emerged from the valley of the Indus River during the second half of the 3d millennium BC The best-known sites are Harappa, destroyed in the 19th cent., and Mohenjo-Daro; these are among the earliest examples of civic planning. Houses, markets, storage facilities, offices, and public baths were arranged in a gridlike scheme. There was also a highly developed drainage system.

The Indus civilization produced many statuettes made of steatite and limestone. Some statuettes resemble the hieratic style of contemporary Mesopotamia, while others are done in the smooth, sinuous style that is the prototype of later Indian sculpture, in which the plastic modeling reveals the animating breath of life (prana). Also found in this region are square steatite seals adorned with a range of animals, including naturalistically rendered bulls; ceramic storage jars with simple, stylized designs; toys with wheels; and figurines, which may be mother goddesses. Bronze weapons, tools, and sculptures indicate a sophistication in craftsmanship rather than a major aesthetic development.

Post-Indus Civilization through the Maurya Dynasty

Of the period from the end of the Indus civilization (c.1500 BC) until Alexander the Great crossed (325 BC) the Indus, few traces remain. However, the principles of Indian architecture were developed in wooden buildings, long since disintegrated.

From the great Maurya dynasty the most famous remains are the edict pillars, erected throughout N India by the Emperor Asoka to proclaim his devotion to Buddhism. The monolithic, smooth columns are over 50 ft (15 m) high and are surmounted by lotus capitals and animal figures. Some of the pillar capitals reveal forms that suggest Persepolitan influences. Also dating from the reign of Asoka is the earliest stone ogival chaitya window, found on the portal of a small rock-cut sanctuary near Bodh Gaya. The chaitya halls were monastic sanctuaries hewn out of rock. As they evolved, from the 3d cent. BC through the 1st millennium AD, they became elaborate colonnaded halls, or walls embellished with painting or sculpture.

Sunga and Andhra Dynasties

The earliest extant stupas date from the Sunga dynasty (2d–1st cent. BC) and early Andhra dynasty (1st cent. BC). These relic mounds are surrounded by railings and gateways covered with carved ornament. One of the main stupas is at Bharhut, where the sculpture is archaic in character. Relief medallions of the Buddha's life or of the jatakas (tales of his previous lives) are shallow cut, with all the incidents of each story arranged within a single composition. The bodies of semidivine beings including yakshis (female tree spirits) are flattened against the pillar of which they form part; prana is still emphasized.

The important stupa at Sanchi shows a similar style. Important carvings on the gateways of another stupa at Sanchi date from the early Andhra period. The yakshis have acquired full, graceful forms, and high-relief compositions are frequently conceived in a continuous method of narration. The carved railing from Bodh Gaya, the place of the Buddha's enlightenment, and the earliest surviving wall paintings are also early Andhra; paintings in the rock-cut cave at Ajanta narrate the Buddha's birth as an elephant and the entire synopsis of historic life. In the far south, in the Deccan, the later Andhra dynasty continued to flourish into the 1st cent. AD Its greatest monument is the carving at the Great Stupa at Amaravati, c.AD 200. The complex but coherent composition, the chiaroscuro, and the liveliness of the crowded surfaces distinguish these bas-reliefs.

Gandhara and Mathura

Under the Kushans, conquerors from central Asia, two of India's most important styles were developed between the 2d and 5th cent. AD: Gandhara art and art of Mathura. Gandhara art, named after the region of Gandhara now in Pakistan, presents some of the earliest images of the Buddha. Earlier at Bharhut and Sanchi, the Buddha's presence was represented by symbols, such as the pipal tree, the wheel of life, footprints, and an empty throne. The Gandhara style was profoundly influenced by 2d-century Hellenistic art and was itself highly influential in central and eastern Asia. Ivories and imported glass and lacquerware attest to the cosmopolitan tastes and extensive trade that characterized the period. Stupas and monasteries were adorned with relief friezes, often carved in dark schist, showing figures in classical poses with flowing Hellenistic draperies.

Farther east and south, contemporary Mathura, also under Kushan rule, created a wholly Indian sculptural art. Reddish limestone was the usual medium. More sensuous, heavier Buddhas whose limbs are created according to canonical instructions, smile directly at their worshipers. Reliefs of the yakshis carved against railing pillars are more frankly sensual and erotic than those at Sanchi. Buddhist iconography was developed in Gandhara. Mathura, however, preserved and developed Indian forms for three centuries.